May 25, · Win Mcnamee/Getty Images. Michael Williams, a retired Marine who wrote his doctoral dissertation on the topic, said “the reality is, the individuals in that room with the secretary of defense Dec 16, · Media and Elections. The media are essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible without media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote and the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process where voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties, policies, candidates and the election process We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow blogger.com more
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Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between femininity and masculinity. Depending on the context, this may include sex -based social structures i. gender roles and gender identity. Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia ; these are often referred to as third genders and fourth gendersetc.
Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and "gender role" which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity in [8] [9] although Madison Bentley had already in defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex", [10] [11] and Simone de Beauvoir 's book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory.
Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. Most contemporary social scientists, [14] [15] [16] behavioral scientists and biologists, [17] many legal systems and government bodies, [18] and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO[19] make a distinction between gender and sex.
In other contexts, the term gender is used to replace sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals.
Inthe US Food and Drug Administration FDA started to use gender instead of sex. The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, dissertation does television images promote equality, such as sexology and neuroscienceare also interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social constructand gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior.
In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in The modern English word gender comes from the Middle English gendergendrea loanword from Anglo-Norman and Middle French gendre. This, in turn, came from Latin genus. Both words mean "kind", "type", or "sort". They derive ultimately from a widely attested Proto-Indo-European PIE root ĝen-[23] [24] which is also the source of kinkindkingand many other English words.
The Oxford Etymological Dictionary of the English Language of defined gender dissertation does television images promote equality kind, breed, sexderived from the Latin ablative case of genuslike genere natusdissertation does television images promote equality, which refers to birth. The concept of gender, in the modern sense, is a recent invention in human history. Before Sexologist John Money and colleagues introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender dissertation does television images promote equality a role init was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories.
By the end of this period, uses of "gender" outnumbered uses of "sex" in the social sciences, arts, and humanities. In the last two decades of the 20th century, the use of gender in academia has increased greatly, outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences.
While the spread of the word in science publications can be attributed to the influence dissertation does television images promote equality feminism, its use as a synonym for sex is attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory, and the distinction has sometimes become blurred with the theory itself; David Haig stated, "Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals, to use a more academic term, or to avoid the connotation of copulation.
In legal cases alleging discriminationsex is usually preferred as the determining factor rather than gender as it refers to biology rather than socially constructed norms which are more open to interpretation and dispute. Alabama ex rel. The word 'gender' has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics as opposed to physical characteristics distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male.
The word was still widely used, however, in the specific sense of grammatical gender the assignment of nouns to categories such as masculinefeminine and neuter.
According to Aristotlethis concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras. InHenry Watson Fowler stated that the definition of the word pertained to this grammar-related meaning:. is a grammatical dissertation does television images promote equality only, dissertation does television images promote equality. To talk of persons of the masculine or feminine g[ender], meaning of the male or female sex, is either a jocularity permissible or not according to context or a blunder.
Sexologist John Money coined the term gender roleand was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal. In a seminal paper he defined it as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman.
The modern academic sense of the word, dissertation does television images promote equality, in the context of social roles of men and women, dates at least back to[35] and was popularized and developed by the feminist movement from the s onwards see § Feminism theory and gender studies belowwhich theorizes that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily constructed, dissertation does television images promote equality.
In this context, matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled matters of gender. The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex as a biological category is also widespread, although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction. The American Heritage Dictionary uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference, noting that the distinction "is useful in principle, but it is by no means widely observed, and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels.
The effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex not gender of the patient. In peasant societies, gender not sex roles are likely to be more clearly defined. Gender identity refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society.
The term woman has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body, though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists.
There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender; however, feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex. One's biological sex is directly tied to specific social roles and the expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity.
The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere. Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman, dissertation does television images promote equality, rather than being allowed to choose a section in between.
The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies, which include the separation of sexes, and the primacy of masculine norms. Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to "complex strategical situation".
and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. For example, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and irrational, and incapable of actions attributed to a "man".
Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does. According to gender theorist Kate Bornsteingender can have ambiguity and fluidity. The World Health Organization defines gender as the result of socially constructed ideas about the behavior, actions, and roles a particular sex performs.
The assignment of gender dissertation does television images promote equality taking into account the physiological and biological attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct. Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as "masculine" or "feminine". Although a person's sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that is identical in any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to a person's gender role as a woman or a man in society varies cross-culturally according to what dissertation does television images promote equality are considered to be masculine or feminine.
Learning gender roles starts from birth and includes seemingly simple things like what color outfits a baby is clothed in or what toys they are given to play with. However, a person's gender does not always align with what has been assigned at birth. Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender. Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy, man, girl or woman, respectively, dissertation does television images promote equality.
In contrast to taxonomic approaches, some feminist philosophers have argued that gender "is a vast orchestration of subtle mediations between oneself and others", rather than a "private cause behind manifest behaviours".
Historically, most societies have recognized only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, a binary of masculine and feminine, largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female.
However, some societies have historically acknowledged and even honored people who fulfill a gender role that exists more in the middle of the continuum between the feminine and masculine polarity. For example, the Hawaiian māhūwho occupy "a place in the middle" between male and female, [55] [56] or the Ojibwe ikwekaazodissertation does television images promote equality, "men who choose to function as women", [57] or ininiikaazo"women who function as men".
Contemporary Native American and FNIM people who fulfill these traditional roles in their communities may also participate in the modern, two-spirit community, [58] however, these umbrella terms, neologisms, and ways of viewing gender are not necessarily the type of cultural constructs that more traditional members of these communities agree with. The hijras of India and Pakistan are often cited as third gender.
In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders, many cultures now recognize, to differing degrees, various dissertation does television images promote equality gender identities. People who are non-binary or genderqueer have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine. They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities, having two or more genders, having no gender, having a fluctuating gender identity, or being third gender or other-gendered.
Recognition of non-binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture, [64] and non-binary people may face increased risk of assault, harassment, and discrimination. Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional nature of masculinity and femininity have dominated gender identity research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory BSRI and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire Dissertation does television images promote equality. Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traitscross sex-typed males report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traitsandrogynous either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and feminine traits or undifferentiated either males or females who report themselves as low on both masculine and feminine traits.
Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto-Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological being and the social environment influence individuals' capacities, dissertation does television images promote equality. The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's experience of life: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one.
However, it may be analyzed in terms of biology—a girl must pass puberty to become a woman—and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive. Within feminist theoryterminology for gender issues developed over the s, dissertation does television images promote equality. In gender studies the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities.
In this context, gender explicitly excludes reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences.
Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as " performative ". Charles E. Hurst states that some people think sex will, " automatically determine one's gender demeanor and role social as well as one's sexual orientation sexual attractions and behavior.
For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender to fill the role properly, and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans "are the results of many people embracing and acting on similar ideas". Schwalbe believes that these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we see them.
They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about them. Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation.
Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in our legal system because of societal prejudices. He says that "courts often confuse sex, gender, and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also dissertation does television images promote equality those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex".
Andrea Dworkin stated her "commitment to destroying male dominance and gender dissertation does television images promote equality while stating her belief in radical feminism.
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